William Marshal Earl of Pembroke
Home | Main Menu | Castle Index | Historical Essays | Recommended Castles | What's New | Links
William Marshal Copyright © 1998 by Catherine Armstrong
Right: Tomb effigy of William Marshal at Temple Church, London.
In a room of the Tower of London in August 1189, two people who were about to be married met for the first time. This twist of fate or act of destiny would have a far-reaching effect on English history. The young lady was Isabel de Clare, sole heiress of Richard Strongbow de Clare, Earl of Pembroke and Striguil, and Aoife, daughter of Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster. The man was William Marshal, the second son of John the Marshal and Sibyl, sister of Patrick, Earl of Salisbury. There are no accounts of this first meeting nor of their marriage ceremony, but this was the final step in the making of one of the greatest knights and magnates of medieval English history.
William Marshal's life is well documented because less than a year after his death in 1219, his eldest son William II commissioned a record of his father's life. "L' Historie de Guillaume le Marechal," is a metrical history of a man and of the knightly class in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century. Little is known about the writer of "L' Historie" except that his first name was Jean, that he personally witnessed some of the events in Marshal's later life, and that he had access to Marshal's squire John D'Erley. The point of view is that of the secular knightly class and not of the ecclesiastical class. The events recorded in "L' Historie" can be verified in most instances by the official records in the Pipe Rolls, Charter Rolls, Close Rolls, Patent Rolls, Oblatis Rolls, and chronicles of the times.
William Marshal was born c 1146, and as a younger son, becoming a knight was his natural choice of a path to success and survival. Marshal was sent to his father's cousin William of Tancarville, hereditary Chamberlain of Normandy, to be trained as a knight in c1159. He was knighted, probably by his uncle, in 1167.
Below: William Marshal's Great Tower at Pembroke Castle.
In 1170 William Marshal was appointed head of the mesnie (military) household of the young Prince Henry by King Henry II. From this time until young Henry's death in June of 1183, Marshal was responsible for protecting, training and running the military household of the heir. In 1173, William Marshal knighted the young Henry, and thereby became Henry's lord in chivalry. We know that Marshal led young Henry and his mesnie to many victories on the tournament fields of Normandy. It is during the years from 1170 to 1183 that William Marshal established his status as an undefeated knight in tournaments. It is here that Marshal began to establish his friendships with the powerful and influential men of his day. His reputation and his character were built through his own actions and abilities. In this age of feudalism, Marshal was a landless knight. He had no lord from whom he could gain advantages or status.
On the death of the young Henry, Marshal obtained permission from Henry II to take the young Henry's cross to Jerusalem. Marshal spent two years in the Holy Land fighting for King Guy of Jerusalem and the Knights' Templar. There are no known records of his time in the east, but we know that some of the castle building techniques he later used at Pembroke were probably learned here.
Henry II granted Marshal his first fief, Cartmel in Lancashire, in 1187. With this fief Marshal became a vassal of King Henry II and swore fealty to him as his lord and his king. Until Henry II's death in 1188, William Marshal served as his knight, his counselor, and his ambassador. When Richard I came to the throne, he recognized Marshal as a brother and equal in chivalry. Fulfilling the promise made by his father, Richard gave Marshal the heiress Isabel de Clare and all her lands in marriage.
With this marriage, William Marshal became "in right of his wife" one of the greatest lords and magnates in the Plantagenet kingdom. Isabel brought to Marshal the palatine lordships of Pembroke and Striguil in Wales and the lordship of Leinster in Ireland. These were large fiefs of land where the lord held as tenant-in-chief of the Crown. A palatine lord's word was law within his lands. He had the right to appoint his own officials, courts and sheriffs, and collect and keep the proceeds of his courts and governments. Except for ecclesiastical cases, the king's writ did not run in the palatinates. King Richard also allowed Marshal to have 1/2 of the barony of Giffard for 2000 marks. This barony was split with Richard de Clare, Earl of Clare and Hertford, who held the barony in England as lord while Marshal held the land in Normandy as lord. This gave Marshal the demesne manors of Crendon in Buckinghamshire and Caversham in Oxfordshire, for 43 knights' fees, and the fief of Longueville in Normandy with the castles of Longueville and Mueller and Moulineaux, for about 40 knights' fees.
Below: Chepstow Castle in south Wales.
Marshal considered the lands that he held to be one unit, not separate units of English, Irish, Welsh, and Norman lands. They were a compact whole to be preserved and improved for the inheritance of his children. Marshal used what he had learned fighting in Normandy and in the Holy Land to improve these fiefs. The great Tower, the Horseshoe Gatehouse, and the fighting gallery in the outer curtain wall at Pembroke were built under his guidance. At Chepstow (Striguil), he was responsible for the gate in the middle bailey, the rebuilding of the upper level of the keep, the west barbican, and the upper and lower bailey. Marshal was also responsible for the building of the castle at Kilkenny, the new castle at Emlyn, and for taking and improving Cilgerran. From a list of castles by R. A. Brown for the period from 1153 to 1214, Marshal held Chepstow, Cilgerran, Emlyn, Goodrich, Haverford, Inkberrow, Pembroke, Tenby, and Usk in England and Wales. Just these castles would have produced more than two hundred knights' fees owed by Marshal to the Crown. Without including his lands in Normandy and Ireland, as feudal lord Marshal controlled a vast amount of land, wealth, and knights/vassals in the Angevin kingdom.
William Marshal served King Richard faithfully as knight, vassal, ambassador, itinerant justice, associate justiciar, counselor, and friend. On Richard I's untimely death in 1199, William Marshal supported John as heir to the throne rather than John's nephew, Arthur of Brittany. It was King John who belted William Marshal and created him Earl of Pembroke on the same day that John was crowned King, May 27, 1199. It is during King John's reign that the character of William Marshal is clearly revealed. John's character has been drawn by countless historians, and none have been able to erase the ineptitude that King John displayed when dealing with his English barons. Whatever his motives were, John inevitably alienated his greatest barons despite the fact that he needed their support and loyalty to rule England. William Marshal was a powerful, respected, wise and loyal knight and baron who had already served two Angevin kings. King John, however, accused Marshal of being a traitor, took all of Marshal's English and Welsh castles, took Marshal's two older sons as hostages, tried to take Marshal's lands in Leinster, and even tried to get his own household knights to challenge Marshal to trial by combat. Despite all of this, William Marshal remained loyal to his feudal lord. He did not rebel when John took his castles; he gave up his two sons as hostages; he supported John against the Papal Interdict; and he supported John in the baronial rebellion. Of all the bonds of feudalism, the greatest and the most important bond was the one of fealty, of loyalty to one's lord. To break this bond and oath was treason, and this was the greatest of crimes. William Marshal was the epitome of knighthood and chivalry. He did not simply espouse it. Marshal's entire life was governed by his oaths of fealty and by his own innate sense of honour. If Marshal had taken his lands, castles, and knights to the side of the rebellion, King John would have lost his crown and perhaps his life.
On the death of John, October 19,1216, William Marshal was chosen by his peers in England as regent for the nine year old Henry III. Henry was knighted and then crowned under the seal of the Earl of Pembroke. William Marshal was the main force and impetus for the defeat of Philip II of France, even leading the attack to relieve Lincoln castle in May 1217 though he was seventy years old. On September 11, 1217, Marshal negotiated the Treaty of Lambeth that ended the war. By his wise treatment of those English barons who had supported Philip II against King John, Marshal ensured the restoration of peace and order in England. This undefeated knight had become a great statesman in the last years of his life. William Marshal died May 14, 1219 at Caversham and was buried as a Knight Templar in the Temple Church in London.
Below: Temple Church, London, where William Marshal and two of his sons are buried. 
William Marshal had been born during the Civil Wars of King Stephen and Empress Mathilda. He trained and knighted one intended king; served faithfully Kings Henry II, Richard the Lionheart, and John Lackland; and knighted and served as regent for a fourth king. As "rector regis et regni," Marshal had the Great Charter reissued in 1216 and in 1217 for the welfare and future of England and the Crown. There are many explanations and definitions of Marshal, his life and his time. Some say he survived so long and so well because of his physical stamina and condition, that he was simply a man of great physical strength. This gives only a piece of the complete portrait of William Marshal. He was a brilliant strategist in terms of his world, militarily and politically. He lived and survived in Henry II's arena, earning Henry's respect and affection. No man of little intelligence would have survived very long there. William Marshal can be understood in terms of his world of feudalism, fealty, loyalty and honour. Marshal stood by King John because of Marshal's oath of fealty and homage to his "lord," who also happened to be the King. William Marshal was a man who lived his life according to his sense of honour, and his sense of honour was defined in the laws and customs of feudalism and knighthood. It is that sense of honour that made no man equal to William Marshal, knight, Earl of Pembroke and Striguil, Lord of Leinster, and Regent of England.
The essay above is part of a series (listed below) written by Catherine Armstrong focusing on the life and times of William Marshal and his father-in-law Richard fitz Gilbert de Clare.
John fitz Gilbert (Marshal's father)
Bibliography
- Ab Ithel, John W. Annales Cambriae. London: Longman and Roberts, 1860.
- Ab Ithel, John W. Annales Cambriae Annales Cambriae London: HMSO, 1860.
- Altschul, Michael. A Baronial Family in Medieval England: The Clares, 1217-1314. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965.
- Annals of The Four Masters; Translated from the Original Irish of the Four Masters. trans. Owen Connellan. Dublin: B. Geraghty, 1846.
- Annales Monastici. Vol. I. [Annales de Margan (AD 1066-1232); Annals de Theokesberia (AD 1061-1263); Annals de Burton (AD 1004-1263)]. ed. H. R. Luard. London: HMSO, 1864. London: Kraus Reprint, 1965.
- Annales Monastici. Vol. II. [Annales de Wintonia (AD 1066-1232); Annales de Waverleia (AD 1-1291)]. ed. H.R. Luard. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green, 1865.
- Barlow, Frank. The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216. London: David McKay, Co., 1988.
- Barnard, Francis Pierrepont. Strongbow's Conquest of Ireland. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1888.
- Bartlett, Robert. Gerald of Wales 1146-1223. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1982.
- Bateson, Mary. Medieval England 1066-1350. New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1971.
- Beeler, J. H. Warfare in England 1066-1189. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966.
- Bottomley, Frank. The Castle Explorer's Guide. New York: Avenel Books, 1979.
- Brooks, Eric St John. Knights' Fees in Counties Wexford, Carlow and Kilkenny: Thirteenth - Fifteenth Centuries. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1950.
- Brown, R. Allen. Castles, Conquest, Charters: Collected Papers. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1989.
---. English Castles. London: L.T. Batsford Ltd., 1976.
---. The Architecture of Castles; A Visual Guide. New York: Facts On File Publications, 1984.- Brown, R. Allen, ed. Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies IV, 1981. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1982.
---. Proceedings of the Battle Conference in Anglo-Norman Studies VIII,1985. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1986.- Cairns, Trevor. Medieval Knights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- Carpenter, D. A. The Minority of Henry III. London: Methuen, 1990.
- Carr, A. D. Medieval Wales. New York: St. Martins' Press, 1995.
- Cazel, Fred A. ed. Feudalism and Liberty: Articles and Addresses of Sidney Painter. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1961.
- Cazel, Fred A., ed. Roll of Divers Accounts for the Early Years of the Reign of Henry III. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1982.
- Chaplais. Pierre. ed. Diplomatic Documents Preserved in the Public Record Office 1101-1272. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1971.
---. English Royal Documents King John - Henry VII. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971.- Colvin, H. M. ed. The History of the King's Works. London: HMSO, 1967.
- Conlon, Denis J. ed. The Song of Dermot and Earl Richard FitzGilbert: "Le Chansun de Dermot e li Quens Richard FizGilberti." New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
- Coss, Peter. The Knight in Medieval England 1000-1400. Dover: Alan Sutton Publishing Inc., 1993.
- Coss, Peter and S. D. Lloyd, eds. Thirteenth Century England II: Proceedings of the Newcastle upon Tyme Conference, 1987. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1987-88.
- Coss, Peter and S. D. Lloyd, eds. Thirteenth Century England III: Proceedings of the Newcastle upon Tyme Conference, 1989. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1989-90.
- Cunningham, George. The Anglo-Norman Advance into the Southwest Midlands of Ireland 1185-1221. Roscrea, Ireland: Parkmore Press, 1987.
- Curtis, Edmund, ed. Calendar of Ormond Deeds: Vol. I-III; 1172-1509. Dublin: The Stationery Office, 1932-35.
- Curtis, Edmund and R. B. McDowell, eds. Irish Historical Documents 1172-1922. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1968.
- Davies, John. A History of Wales. New York: Penguin Books, 1994.
- Davies, J. Conway, ed. The Cartae Antiquae Rolls 11-20. Printed from the Original MSS. London: J. W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1960.
- Davies, R. R. The British Isles 1100-1500: Comparisons, Contrasts and Connections. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, Ltd., 1988.
---. Domination and Conquest: The Experience of Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.- Denholm-Young, Neal. Collected Papers on Medieval Subjects. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1946.
- Dolley, Michael. Anglo-Norman Ireland c 1100-1318. Dublin: Gill and MacMillan, Ltd., 1972.
- Douglas, David C. and George W. Greenway, eds. English Historical Documents 1042-1189. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1975.
- Duby, Georges. L' Historie de Guillaume le Marechal: William Marshal the Flower of Chivalry. trans. Richard Howard. New York: Pantheon Press, 1985.
---. The Chivalrous Society. trans. Cynthia Postan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.- Eyton, Robert W., ed. Court, Household and Itinerary of Henry II. London: Taylor, 1878.
- Farrer. William. Honors and Knights' Fees. Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1923-25.
- Flanagan, Marie Theresa. Irish Society: Anglo-Norman Settlers; Angevin Kingship. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1989.
- Fleming, Robin. Kings, Lords in Conquest England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
- Frame, Robin. Colonial Ireland 1169-1369. Dublin: Helicon Ltd., 1981.
---. The Political Development of the British Isles 1100-1400. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.- Gillingham, John. Richard Couer de Lion: Kingship, Chivalry and War in the Twelfth Century. London: the Hambledon Press, 1994.
- Gillingham, J. and J. C. Holt, eds. War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwick. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1984.
- Goronwy, Edwards J., ed. Calendar of Ancient Correspondence Concerning Wales. Cardiff: University Press Board, 1935.
- Great Britain. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli Chartarum in turri londinensi asservati Vol. I Pars I. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1837.
- Great Britain. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli litterarum clausarum in turri londinensi asservati. Vol. I-II. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1833-44.
- Great Britian. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli litterarum patentium in turri londinensi asservati. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1835.
- Great Britian. Curia Regis. Curia Regis Rolls Vol. 6-7. London: HMSO, 1932, 1935.
- Great Britain. Exchequer. Ancient Deeds series A (E.40/13673-115068) Calendar Vol. 151. London: HMSO Swift Printers Ltd., 1978.
- Great Britain. Exchequer. Liber Feodorum: The Book of Fees, commonly called Testa de Nevill. 3 vols. ed. H. C. Maxwell Lyte. London: HMSO, 1920-31.
- Great Britain. Record Commission. Abbreviatio Placitorum Richard I - Edward II. eds. G. Rose and W. Illingworth. London: G. Eyre, 1811.
- Great Britain. Record Commission. Calendarium Rotularum Patentium in turri londinensi. London: G. Eyre and A. Strahan, 1802.
- Great Britain. Record Commission. Rotulus Cancellarii: vel Antigraphum magni Rotuli pipae de tertio anno regni regis Johannis. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1833.
- Great Britain. Record Commission. Rotuli de Oblatis et finibus in Turri londensi, asservat, tempore regis Johannis. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1835.
- Great Britain. Record Commission. Rotuli normanniae in turri londinensi asservati, Johanne et Henrico quinto, Angliae regibus. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1835.
- Great Britian. Record Commission. Rotuli selecti Ad rec Anglicas et Hibernicas spectantes; ex archivis in Doma capitulari; west Monasteriensi deprompt. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1834.
- Harding, Alan. England in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- Hardy, T. D., ed. Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitus regnante Johanne. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1844.
- Harper-Bill, Christopher. The Cartulary of the Augustinian Friars of Clare. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991.
- Harper-Bill, Christopher, Christopher J. Holdsworth and Janet L. Nelson, eds. Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1989.
- Hicks, Michael. Bastard Feudalism. New York: Longman, 1995.
- Holt, J. C. Magna Carta and Medieval Government. London: The Hambledon Press, 1985.
- Holt, J. C. and Richard Mortimer, eds. ACTA of Henry II and Richard I. London: List and Index Society, Paradigm Print, 1986.
- Howlett, Richard, ed. Gesta Stephani Regis Anglorum: Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I. Vol. I. London: Trubner & Co.: Vol. II. Oxford: Parker & Co.: Vol. III. Cambridge: McMillan & Co.: Vol. IV. Edinburgh: A. & C. Black and Douglas & Foulis: Vol. V. Dublin: A. Thom & Co., Ltd., 1844-1889.
- Hudson, John. Land, Law and Lordship in Anglo-Norman England. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1994.
- Johnson, Paul. Castles of England, Scotland and Wales. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.
- Jolliffe, J. E. A. Angevin Kingship. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1958.
- Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.
- Kenyon, John and Richard Avent, eds. Castles in Wales and the Marches: Essays in Honour of D. J. Cathcart King. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1987.
- Kightly, Charles. A Mirror of Medieval Wales: Gerald of Wales and His Journey of 1188. ed. David M. Robinson. Cardiff: CADW, 1988.
- King, D. J. Cathcart, The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History. Portland: Areopagitica Press, 1988.
- Landon, Lionel, ed. The Cartae Antiquae Rolls 1-10 Printed from the Original MSS. London: J. W. Ruddock & Sons, 1939.
- La Patourel, John. Feudal Empires Norman and Plantagenet. London: the Hambledon Press, 1985.
- Leges Henrici Primi. ed. & trans. by L. J. Donnen. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1972.
- Lewis, E. A., ed. An Inventory of the Early Chancery Proceedings Concerning Wales. Cardiff: University Press Board, 1937.
- Lydon, James, ed. The English in Medieval Ireland: Proceedings of the First Joint Meeting of the Royal Irish Academy and the British Academy, Dublin, 1982. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1984.
MacNiocaill, G., ed. The Red Book of the Earls of Kildare. Dublin: Irish Manuscript Commission, 1964.
- Matthew Paris. Chronicles of Matthew Paris. ed. & trans. by Richard Vaughan. New York: St. Martins' Press, 1984.
- Normandy. Exchequer. Magni Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae sub regibus Angliae. 2 vols. trans. by Thomas Stapleton. London: Sumptibus Soc. Antiq., 1840-1844.
- Orpen, G. H. The Song of Dermot and the Earl. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1891.
- Painter, Sidney. Studies in the History of the English Feudal Barony. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1943.
---. The Reign of King John. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.
---. William Marshal Knight-Errant, Baron and Regent of England. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1982.- Platt, Colin. The Architecture of Medieval Britain. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
- Poole, A. L. Domesday to Magna Carta. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1966.
- Pounds, Norman. The Medieval Castle in England and Wales. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1990.
- Rees, William. An Historical Atlas of Wales from Early to Modern Times. London: Faber, 1967.
- Regesta Regium Anglo-Normannorum 1066-1154 Vol. II: Regesta Henrici Primi. eds. Charles Johnson and H. A. Cronne. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1957.
- Regesta Regium Anglo-Normannorum Vol. III; Regesta Regis Stephani ac Mathildis Imperatricis as Gaufridi et Henrici Ducum Normannorum 1135-1154. eds. H. A. Cronne and R. H. C. Davies. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1968.
- Regesta Regium Anglo-Normannorum Vol. IV: Facsimiles of Original Charters and Writs of King Stephen, The Empress Mathilda and Dukes Geoffrey and Henry 1135-1154. eds. H. A. Cronne and R. H. C. Davies. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1969.
- Richardson, H. G. and G. O. Sayles, eds. The Administration of Ireland 1172-1377. Dublin: The Stationery Office for the Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1963.
- Roche, Richard. The Norman Invasion of Ireland. 3rd ed. Dublin: Anvil Books, 1995.
- Roger of Hoveden. The Annals of Roger of Hoveden. trans. Henry T. Riley. London: Henry G. Bohun, 1849.
- Roger of Wendover. Roger of Wendover's Flowers of History. 2 vols. trans. J. A. Giles. London: G. Bohn, 1849-1859.
- Rotularum Patentium Clausarum Cancellariae Hiberniae Calendarium. Dublin: Irish Record Commission, 1928.
- Round, J. Horace, ed. Ancient Charters Royal and Private Prior to A. D. 1220. London: Wyman and Sons, The Pipe Roll Society, 1888.
---. Calendar of Documents Preserved in France Illustrative of the History of England and Ireland. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1899.
---. Historical Studies on the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. London: reprint G. Allan and Unwin, 1964.- Sanders, Ivor J. English Baronies: A Study in their Origin and Descent. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1960.
- Shirley, Walter Waddington, ed. Royal and Other Historical Letters Illustrative of the Reign of Henry III. Vol. I 1216-1235. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1862.
---. Royal and Other Historical Letters Illustrative of the reign of Henry III. Vol. II 1236-1272. London: Longman, Green, Reuder and Dyer, 1866.- Soulsby, Ian. The Towns of Medieval Wales. Chichester: Phillimore & Co., Ltd., 1983.
- Stephen, Sir Leslie and Sir Sidney Lee, eds. The Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1885-1900.
- Stubbs, William. Historical Introductions to the Rolls Series. ed. Arthur J. Hassall. New York: Haskell House Publishers, Ltd., 1968.
- Sweetman, H. S., ed. Calendar of Documents Relating to Ireland Preserved in HMSO 1171-1327. London: Longman, 1875-1886. Valduz: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1966.
- The Chronicle of Melrose from the Cottonian Manuscript, Faustina B, IX. London: Percy Lund Humphries & Co., Ltd., 1936.
- The Chronicles of the Reigns of Henry II and Richard I A.D. 1169-1192, commonly known as Benedict of Peterborough. ed. William Stubbs. London: HMSO, 1867. London: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1965.
- The Great Roll of the Pipe for the Fifth Year of the Reign of King Henry III Michaelmas 1221. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1990.
- The Great Roll of the Pipe for the First Year of the Reign of King Richard I A.D. 1189-1190. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1844.
- The Great Roll of the Pipe for the Fourth Year of the reign of King Henry III Michaelmas 1220. London: J. W. Rudduck & Sons, Ltd., 1987.
- Three Rolls of the King's Court in the Reign of King Richard the First A. D. 1194-1195. London: HMSO, 1891. Vaduz: Kraus Reprint, Ltd., 1966.
- Turner, Ralph V. The King and His Courts; The Rule of John and Henry III in the Administration of Justice 1199-1240. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968.
- Walker, David. Medieval Wales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
---. The Normans in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.- Walker, Sue Sheridan, ed. Wife and Widow in Medieval England. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993.
- Warren, W. L. The Governance of Norman and Angevin England 1084-1272. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.
- Waugh, Scott L. The Lordship of England: Royal Wardships and Marriages in English Society and Politics 1217-1327. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.
- White, Newport B, ed. The Red Book of Ormond. Dublin: The Stationery Office, 1932.
Please select this link for details on Catherine's newly-released biography of William Marshal.
Home | Main Menu | Castle Index | Historical Essays | Recommended Castles | What's New | Links
Copyright © 2009 by Catherine Armstrong and the Castles of Wales Website
